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The effects of open and SMART goals on physical activity and psychological outcomes over one week: a multiple methods study
Journal article   Open access   Peer reviewed

The effects of open and SMART goals on physical activity and psychological outcomes over one week: a multiple methods study

Rebecca M. Hawkins, Christian Swann and Patricia C. Jackman
International journal of sport and exercise psychology, Vol.First online
13/10/2025
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2025.2570187
Appears in  Recent Faculty of Health Publications
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The effects of open and SMART goals on physical activity andpsychological outcomesView
Published (Version of record)CC BY-NC-ND V4.0,  Open

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Abstract

Enjoyment exercise open goals goal setting motivation
In this multi-study paper, quantitative and qualitative methods were used to examine the effects of open and SMART goals on physical activity (PA) and psychological outcomes over a week-long experiment in active and insufficiently active adults. In Study 1, a three-arm, randomised controlled-trial design was employed, where participants were randomly assigned to one of three experimental groups: (1) SMART (n = 20); (2) open (n = 19); or (3) control (n = 21). Participants took part in a baseline week, followed by an experimental week, in which participants recorded information regarding their PA and responded to a range of psychological measures while pursuing the respective goals. Three-way mixed-model ANCOVAs revealed that open and SMART goals had no significant effect on PA compared to the control, and no differences were found between the goal conditions. However, insufficiently active participants reported significantly more enjoyable experiences, greater perceptions of performance, and confidence in the open goal condition compared to the SMART goal condition, whereas active participants reported significantly greater levels of enjoyment in the SMART goal and control condition compared to the open goal condition. In Study 2, 16 insufficiently active adults from Study 1 were purposively sampled to participate in semi-structured interviews exploring their experiences. Findings indicated that open goals may create more enjoyable and autonomous experiences, which were reported to reduce perceptions of challenge and pressure. This research provides insights into the goal types that may be beneficial in future PA interventions aiming to increase the uptake and maintenance of PA.

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